KWDI Korean Women’s Development Institute

Abstract

A Study on the Reorganization of Social Care from a Gender Perspective:
The Transformation of the Care Policy Paradigm in the Age of Individualization

Eun-Ji Kim

Kyung-Hee Ma

In-Hee Choi

Yi-Seon Kim

Jin-Hee Choi

Kyung Sung

Ja-Young Yoon

 

 

The goal of this study was to identify medium- to long-term policy changes that would restructure social care from a gender perspective. Consequently, the structural changes of the care labor market brought about by the development of defamilized care work since the late 2000s, as well as the changes in its status within the care labor market hold implications for existing gender inequality. To comprehend the characteristics of the care labor market in South Korea, the characteristics of the care labor markets in major countries such as Germany, Finland, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States were analyzed, and policy implications for the reorganization of care service policies were adduced. Next, the people’s evaluation of value and demand for care were analyzed and the implications regarding the necessity and direction of policy reorganization were derived based on a survey on the perception of care, which included an evaluation of policies developed until now and improvement tasks. The following is an overview of the main research findings:

 

First is a summary of the characteristics of the structural changes in the Korean care labor market. Since 2008, the number of people employed in the care sector has increased significantly. Its work force comprises managers, education, health care, care services, and non-care positions in the care industry. The number of care service workers, health care workers, and non-care workers in the care industry has increased, while the number of educators has decreased. Overall, the concentration of women in the care sector has deepened, and among them, care service workers and non-care workers in the industry showed a trend of aging and low education. Estimating the wage disadvantage for all workers in the care industry by year revealed that the profit for hourly wages decreased while the disadvantage for the average monthly wage grew. Overall, managers, health care workers, and education workers experienced wage increases, whereas care service workers and non-care workers in the care industry experienced significant wage declines. When the wage disadvantage was separated and analyzed by gender, it was found that men experienced a greater disadvantage than women. These results indicate that these two occupations in the care sector with the poorest working conditions have been significantly undervalued relative to managerial, educational, and health care positions.

 

The following are the results of the analysis of the working conditions and wage disadvantages of care workers in the five countries: Finland has the highest ratio of care workers to total employment among the five countries. Simultaneously, Finland was also the country with the highest proportion of women who are care workers and the highest proportion of care workers who are women. Finland, a country that exemplifies Nordic social democracy, has the highest proportion of care workers in residential care and non-residential social welfare care, as well as the highest proportion of women in these fields. After controlling for job characteristics including age, marital status, education, part-time, wage work status, professional status, and public sector, the analysis of the wage disadvantage/benefit of care workers versus non-care workers yielded the following results: There were no wage disparities in Finland, and men actually earned more than women. With the exception of Finland, the wage gap for women in the care sector ranged from 7.9% (Germany) to 20.5% (France). Although not statistically significant, there was a wage advantage associated with the care sector in Finland. For men, the wage increase in Finland is 22%, whereas the wage disparities for caregiving range from 12% to 18% in France and the UK, respectively. The fact that wage disparities are statistically significant and large in Anglo-American countries, where government involvement in public care organizations is low, demonstrates the inability of the market system to guarantee adequate compensation and working conditions for care workers.

 

The following are the principal findings of the Public perception survey on care. First, according to the survey on the need to increase or decrease government spending by policy area, there was a high level of agreement on the need for spending on welfare policies such as income guarantees and service guarantees, with more than half of the respondents agreeing that it is necessary. Among them, agreement on the necessity of service guarantee was greater, and this agreement was greatest among female respondents.

 

Second, analysis of the quality of care services for infants, elementary school children, the elderly, and the disabled showed that the services were rated between 5 and 6 out of 10 points, which were interpreted as moderate. The public’s confidence in the quality of care services was found to be low.

 

Third, it was found that the public felt burdened and anxious regarding the caregiving and care-receiving situation. In all, 80–90% of the respondents agreed with the four statements: “I’m concerned that I won’t be able to receive proper care if I age and become disabled,” “I’m concerned that if I age and become disabled, I’ll become a burden to those around me,” “I am concerned that I will be solely responsible for my family members who require care,” and “I am concerned that I will not be able to provide as much care for my family as I would like.” When asked from whom they expect to receive care if they require it due to aging, the expectation for government caregiving services was the highest, followed by family and an individual caregiver.

 

Fourth, the social status and social contribution of various care-related professions were studied. The analysis revealed a distinction between broad care occupations, such as nurses, doctors, elementary, middle, and high school teachers, and university professors, and narrow care occupations, such as childcare teachers, caregivers, and social workers. Social status and social contribution were higher for career occupations in the broad sense than in the narrow sense, but the difference in social contribution was not as pronounced as the difference in social status. Consequently, care occupations in the broadest sense were perceived to receive social recognition commensurate with the social significance and value of the work, whereas care occupations in the narrowest sense were viewed as not receiving adequate social recognition. In addition, the respondents acknowledged that care workers should be treated better in general, and this sentiment was more prevalent among women.

 

Fifth, the status of care within households was validated by the availability and frequency of unpaid care for family members and acquaintances who do not reside together but require care, as well as for family members living together, such as children and elderly parents, care hours, and difficulties in compatibility with paid work. Consequently, almost half of the respondents had family or acquaintances that provided unpaid care and 30–40% had grandchildren or disabled family members or acquaintances. In terms of gender participation, it was found that men do not or rarely participate in unpaid care, despite having more family members and acquaintances that require care than women. The majority of those currently caring for family members and acquaintances, regardless of employment status, perceived it to be difficult to combine unpaid and paid work, and this perception was more prevalent among women than men.

 

Sixth, the following are the results of a survey aimed at respondents with children in elementary school or younger regarding the current state of caring for the youngest child. Mother’s care still takes up the majority of time when it comes to childcare. When comparing how school-aged children and preschoolers used care institutions, school-aged children’s needs were not met to the same extent as those of preschoolers, and these gaps were primarily filled by private academies. It is assumed that this trend imposes a significant financial burden on parents and exacerbates the class divide.

 

Seventh, the following are the primary findings of the survey regarding the current state of care for elderly individuals over 65 who require care. Public care services such as the long-term care insurance system for the elderly, a form in which the family, the state, and society share care for the elderly was implemented; however, family care remained a significant factor. Significant numbers of family caregivers appeared to be female, and the majority of care services continued to be utilized in the morning.

 

On the basis of the research findings, the following policy recommendations can be made: First, financial investment in care services must be increased, and national accountability must be strengthened. Second, qualitative expansion of care services must take precedence over quantitative expansion. Third, to improve the quality of care services, it is essential to reduce occupation-based disparities in the care labor market and develop a high road strategy. Fourth, more active policy efforts are required to improve the feminization of the care profession, which has been increasing over time, and gender segregation within the field. Fifth, in order to increase men’s participation in care, it is necessary to establish a social system that allows for the compatibility of work and care. Sixth, in childcare, it is essential to enhance the overall quality of care, make schools more children-friendly, and bridge the gap between education and care. Seventh, in the care of the elderly, it is necessary to increase the absolute amount of support and to eliminate the divide between care and health.

 

Research areas: Family/Social Care

Keywords: Social Care, Gender Perspective, Public perception survey on care